The Caucasian Chalk Circle Questions by Nicole Essay Example For Students

The Caucasian Chalk Circle Questions by Nicole Essay How does the language of the play differ from the language of scene 1? First of all the Scene 2 uses narrative language and speaking in a third person. This is used through out the performance by a character called the singer and Grusha/Simon. Even though the singer is actually given a character name he does not exist throughout the play other than narrating. The narrator first says once upon a time which shows this is a story being told in a past tense. The narrator sets the scene for the Governor and his wife His name was Georgi Abashvilli. The scene is then describing the revolution, which is taking place at this time, referring to deaths as a time of bloodshed. For that reason alone I feel like the beginning of the play starts off with a more modern language so theres a clear contrast between the different time periods and its easier to distinguish them. We will write a custom essay on The Caucasian Chalk Circle Questions by Nicole specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now * What is Nukha like? Nukha is a village in the Caucasus Mountains, which was ruled by the Governor Georgi Abashvilli, who did not rule it very well seeing how much he had purposely ignored the poor beggars and petitioners asking him for help. Nukha appears to be a poor village (apart from the Governors palace) this is shown by the miserable slum houses who are filled with poor and unfortunate people which do not have the money to live in the right accommodations. * What do you learn about the citys Governor, Georgi Abashvili his family and his style of leadership? What are his main concerns? Throughout Scene 2 we begin to learn more about the Governors family and the Governor himself. Georgi Abashvilli, displays absolutely no worry or care for his son and his wife in his very short appearance in the play as he hardly speaks a single line in Scene 2, which indicates his utter self-involvement. He has no interest in what does not concern him, which is verified when he entirely ignores the begging protestors outside his palace. Georgi is also described as showing lack of curiosity when the fat prince questions the war, this complete disrespect for the soldiers and the people of his city, proves his arrogance, which is in fact similar to his wifes. Natella Abashvilli proves her enormous arrogance and self-involvement just like her husband who has been murdered. Although her sons life is in danger her main attention remains exclusively on her wardrobe and the haste to save the dresses, which concludes in to her carrying the dresses out to the carriage rather than her son. Ins tead she leaves the son in the care of her servants, concerned only with her safety and appearance. These actions are presented to and therefore believed by the audience to be typical of upper-class mothers. * Does the scene involving the two doctors develop your understanding of the Governor? I feel like it helped me to understand how much power and authority he had in the town of Nukha. Georgi possessed his own doctors who were right at his service taking care of his only child better than he was ever able to. It also made me realise that he did not only had doctors, he had everyone wrapped around his little finger and of course his wife took advantage of that. The Governor and his wife were both arrogant and preferred to have the doctors at their service rather than helping all the poor, homeless people out on the streets. * Describe the meeting between Grusha and Simon. Why do they speak to each other in the third person? .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3 , .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3 .postImageUrl , .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3 , .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3:hover , .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3:visited , .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3:active { border:0!important; } .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3:active , .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3 .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u4ba2960b31dcec8c861e7c86989d81f3:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Sup Natl in macbeth1 EssayGrusha seems to be very shy and raised to believe shes not as significant as the other characters like Natella because of her social status. This is why she handles herself very proper because that is the way shes used to being. Shes not used to having any attention on her therefore when Simon flirts with her indirectly (by the use of the third person) she answers back with the use of the third person as of her shy personality. However additionally even though Simon has more confidence, his romantic interest in Grusha brings out the fearful side in him, which causes him to talk in the third person. * Why is the Governor suspicious of Prince Kazbeki? How are his suspicions justified? The relationship between the Prince Kazbeki and the Governor is foreshadowed by the Governors comment, in which he states his surprise on being greeted by his own brother. The way Prince Kazbeki greets his brother is so unusual to the Governor that he remarks on it, But did you hear Brother Kazbeki wish me a happy Easter? This indicates the suspicion on the reason why Governor was greeted him the way he did which was obviously not their usual greeting. Turns out his suspicions were right after his own brother has killed him. * Why must Simon leave? What is Grushas reaction to his departure? What promises are made? The purpose of Simon leaving is to go and protect the Governors wife from the riots seeing as Natella being an upper class deserves more protection than anyone else in the palace. Nevertheless before Simon sets off and after his attempt to flirt with Grusha he finally has the courage to propose to her and give her a silver cross, which is the sign of an engagement. I believe that she has only accepted the proposal because she wants to belong to someone and feel loved which she has not in a very long time, this is why she promises Simon that no matter what happens she will wait for him and she must fulfill her objective. * How does the Governors wife come to leave the child behind? Through Scene 1 we can see the awful relationship between the Governors wife and her son Michael. She seems to only carry the child with her only because the child is hers although her actions do not express that. Georgi of course, builds only for his little Michael! Never for me Natella is in fact shown to be jealous of her own son getting more attention from her husband than her, the cause of this might be she is craving for his love and attention however that statement raises a very important question as to what is the point of having a child if you dont surround it with eternal love? This again is shown when as soon as Natella sees the fire she rushes off and leaves the child with people who do not care for it at all. * Why does Grusha take the child? What does the singer mean by terrible temptation to do good? Does anyone support Grusha in her actions? I believe Grusha chooses to take the tiny isolated child with her seeing as no one else seemed to care for it. Even his own mother Natella had left him behind after announcing there was a fire visible as at last she noticed the fire-reddened sky. Everyone else seem to believe Michael has caught the plague and take no notice of it, but just because Grusha is insignificant to them they do not want her to take him with her Keep your hands off him. She as a maid is alone and unimportant to the res t of the characters so for that reason alone shes able to empathise with Michael, as she knows what it feels like to be thought of as a burden. By terrible temptations to do good the singer means Grusha is tempted to take Michael with her as deep down in her heart she knows its the right thing to do but also there may be concerns as to her not having enough money to actually look after the child and provide him with the right accommodations.

Summary of Sociocultural Perspectives on Second Language Writing Essays

Summary of Sociocultural Perspectives on Second Language Writing Essays Summary of Sociocultural Perspectives on Second Language Writing Essay Summary of Sociocultural Perspectives on Second Language Writing Essay The sociocultural perspective on writing explains how culture, as a central factor in teaching becomes its core and soul. Language teachers, equipped by their own cultural influences, can bend something according to their own interpretation. Thus, writing is a form of constructing one’s identity – it doesn’t transmit ideas alone, rather it defines the writer itself. However there are things that will define and enhance the personality, development, and uniqueness of a writer. Writers use linguistics and cultural tools to create a construct of themselves. They make use of concepts, words or any means of communications that will define how relate to the things around them. Each individual has his own distinct position as a writer. In the example cited about the classroom dialogue, is a proof that even can articulate well on their own views, in their own ways. Second language writing can be a strong factor in constructing an identity. As argued, â€Å"context in turn constructs the writer.† Given a wider array of topics wherein one must write about, the writer can explore his wits and be devoid of the polarization that writing about one-dimensional perspective on one’s culture can create. Removing topic restrictions in writing for students can help in reforming identities for the writer. It gives one, the ability to explore on bigger things, expand knowledge, go through challenges that will mold a new identity construct. As such, culture, social identity and self are vague concepts. Yet the concept has itself an important role in second language learning. These concepts become a factor in the student’s learning in such a way that they increase their capacity to dictate the flow in their written discourse whenever they have the full understanding of the contexts that they are engaged with. It also equips them the ability to reach through ideas that are not common to them, extending their horizons to other’s culture is a rich experience. In this view, second language writers become â€Å"border crossers† because they are not just extending their knowledge onto their own self, but as well as others perceptions. And this shall mean, that they are becoming richer in knowledge, exploring wide cultural and linguistic possibilities. The Puerto Rican Influence During the 19th century, Romanticism movement widely influenced the Puerto Rican literature. This era was a rise of patriotic writings which ignited the revolt in 1868. Prompting the revolution, in 1869, the Americans took over Puerto Rico, which at first were welcomed by the people thinking they would gain their independence. But failure to gain independence from the Americans had once again fueled patriotic writers who continued writing poetries of disapproval. This take over pushed Puerto Ricans to United States. However, they were able to maintain their cultural identity. In their migration to US, they inhabited a large part of New York City. Here, they continued pursuing their heritage. Though they have faced racial discrimination, they formed a sub-culture Nuyorican Movement. The Nuyorican Movement was comprised of Puerto Rican novelists, essayists and poets living in New York. This was a result of these people who were trying really hard to maintain their culture even if they were living in a foreign land. (Gray) Amidst the pressure of the city, the Puerto Ricans managed to keep their self-identity. They have maintained the culture, the language and the heritage. That most of the Puerto Rican writers have pursued with their works in order to provide continuity for their rich culture, is the main reason why Puerto Ricans have embedded their influence upon the Americans. Their refusal to succumb to the environment and give up their lineage was one thing that kept them abreast with their culture (Garcia). The Puerto Ricans social network has remained closely knitted despite being pushed to a different homeland. They have not secluded their culture, instead, they continued to uphold their culture and traditions. In this way, they were able to share their culture and in the process influence the people around them. And having a rich culture in writing, they were able to reach foreign culture. And until this era, their culture still shows the effect that they had in American literature.

Monetary Theory of Germany Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Monetary Theory of Germany - Research Paper Example The Bundesbank Act of 1957 birthed the central bank of Germany. In the period since the independent Bundesbank has been successful in pursuing price stability. In fact, the ECB and other central banks in the EU transition economies have been modeled after it. The Bundesbank, by any definition of targeting, cannot be defined as a monetary targeter (Haan 67). Instead, it consciously uses its monetary targets as a signaling framework for intent and explaining its policies to the public. This has given the monetary stance taken by the bank an increased level of transparency, which has, in turn, enhanced its flexibility when it comes to economic responses such as the reunification process. Another step that the bank has taken to its benefit has been its independence from control by political events. The Bundesbank has taken transparency in a meaningful manner and has announced, publicly, its medium-term policy goal of a 2% inflation rate and given information regarding its economic outcomes and policies that are necessary assessing the bank’s performance. Its steps towards this direction have proven that accountability to the standard that clearly helps rather than stands in the way of central bank independence in the long term. The highest form of praise for the successful steps taken by the Bundesbank over the past years has been imitation by other central banks. This has especially been so because of its independence from political control, a legal statement that commits itself to price stability, and monetary target adoption. (Haan 70). The Bundesbank is not a monetary targeter. However, this does not imply that inflation in Germany has stayed low due to fac tors beyond the bank’s control or luck. Historical records, as well as those from the past five years, have shown a different utilization of monetary targets. It uses the targets as a signaling framework. On top of increased transparency, the Bundesbank has taken to disciplined discretion (Haan 70). This is neither a complicated hidden law followed by the Bundesbank or the occurrences that follow when conservative central banks possess autonomy. It means that the bank has committed itself in publicly clarifying the stance and intent of its monetary policy regarding its

Dans quelle mesure peuton dire que les in&#233galities de salaire Essay

Dans quelle mesure peuton dire que les inégalities de salaire existent toujours pour les femmes en France - Essay Example Au contraire, l'tude montre un cart d'entre 6% (ouvriers) et 68% (chefs d'entreprise) dans les salaires mensuels nets, moyennant 37% tous temps de travail confondus, et 24% pour les postes temps complets. La catgorie avec le moins d'carts est la catgorie des employs (entre 6 et 8%). Les moins bien payes touchent 91% du niveau de salaire des hommes, alors que les 10% les mieux rmunres n'en peroivent que 75% (Observatoire des ingalits 2006). En ce qui concerne la fonction publique, les plus rcentes tudes publies par l'INSEE (2004) montrent un cart de 20% dans le salaire annuel nets pour les postes temps complets. Tandis que les femmes cadres et des employes et ouvrires qui travaillent dans le secteur public gagnent nettement moins que les hommes (entre 20 et 25%), des professionnelles gagnent presque le mme salaire que leurs collgues masculins (20,400 contre 21,900). Ses statistiques sont controverses de par le fait que les vraies diffrences sont difficiles cerner. Dans certaines instances, le statut complexe de la femme franaise entre mre de famille et travailleur rendre difficile la tache de comparaison. L'volution des lois sur le travail (le SMIC par exemple) a fait que les femmes d'aujourd'hui gagnent plus que ses surs d'il y a un demi-sicle (Clark 2000, p.77), mais 80% des salaris qui gagnent le SMIC et moins sont des femmes (Maurin 2000). Cela ne dmontre pas une ingalit de salaire mais une ingalit dans le systme du travail. La culture franaise insiste sur la place primordiale de la femme la maison, en assurant la stabilit de la vie de famille. Puisque des femmes doivent penser aux enfants, soit elles ne poursuivent pas des tudes au-del du baccalaurat-qui leur donne accs qu'aux postes mal pays-o elles ne travaillent qu' temps partiel. Ces ingalits se rvlent par une infriorit de salaire dans des statistiques globales, mais ce qui est plus important retenir c'est que les horaires infrieurs effectus par les femmes ne sont pas reflts par les tudes, donc on ne peut que supposer un cart plus important que ceux reporter par des statistiques officielles. D'autre lment qui rend compliqu la question d'ingalits de salaire est la diffrence des qualifications entre hommes et femmes et leur concentration dans des diffrents secteurs et filires. Les femmes sont plutt concentres dans des filires avec des salaires bas (Gregory et Tidd 2000, p. 36), par exemple, elles sont plutt dans l'administration (secrtaires, rceptionnistes) et l'enseignement (surtout dans la maternelle). SelonMargaret Maruani, sociologue et directrice de recherche au CNRS, cela est la faute de l'ducation, ou les filles sont traditionnellement orientes vers des filires fminines tandis que des garons le sont vers des filires dites nobles telles que sciences conomiques (Maurin 2000). En outre des secteurs de salaire infrieur, les mres gravitent aussi vers les botes relativement petites et intimes (Gregory et Tidd 2000, p.36). En tudiant des secteurs quivalents, on trouve qu'en gnral les femmes occupent des postes moins qualifis que des hommes mme si maintenant elles ont plus d'accs aux mtiers qualifis (Maurin 2000). Mme quand elles se trouvent parmi les cadres suprieurs, son statut et par la suite son salaire n'est pas forcment la mme que ses collgues masculins. Maruani

A Comparison of world religions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

A Comparison of world religions - Essay Example The Hindus do not eat meat. Shinto does not look at the emperor in the face. Native American people fear handling the dead (Hall et al., 2006). In Islam, pork is forbidden. The act of eating anything in Islam is a form of worship. It is this reason that makes Muslims selective in food. Muslims do not eat pork because the Quran prohibits them from doing so. They also do not drink alcohol because they say it intoxicates the brain as stipulated in the holy Quran. Intoxicating the body by eating ‘unlawful’ food is a sin (Naik, n.d). In Hindu, eating beef is taboo. The Hindus do not eat beef because they associate cows with God’s creation. In the past, Hindus used to sacrifice bulls for religious purposes. The beef would then be eaten. Things later changed among these religious groups. Individuals would be holier by avoiding beef. Nowadays a cow, to a Hindu, is a source of life. The cow is a sacred creature that must not be eaten. Consuming other products like milk, however, is accepted (Nigosian, 2007). They believe that there are severe consequences that come as a result of breaking a taboo. One would be jealousy of others, angry, anxious, and fearful of death. Hindus believe that if they inflict pain on others, including cows, the same pain will rebound on them (Hall et al., 2006). In Christianity, the taboos regarding the choices of food are different among the Protestants, Orthodox and Roman Catholics. Roman Catholics do not eat meat on Fridays during lent time. They fast during lent because they believe it improves spiritual discipline. Fasting is also believed to enable a Catholic overcome the physical world’s sensations and focus on spiritual growth. The Catholics believe that sacrifices are offerings to God. God, therefore, deserves to receive the best form of sacrifice. The Catholics choose meat because it is always associated with celebrations. Eating meat on Fridays is,

Economic Policy In Sweden During The Great Depression Economics Essay

Economic Policy In Sweden During The Great Depression Economics Essay When the Great Depression swept across Europe in the early 1930s the impact of the economic downturn varied across countries. While for example Germany, Austria and most of Central Europe experienced a long and deep economic crisis, the economies of the Nordic countries Sweden, Denmark and Norway were not only affected later and more mildly by the Depression, but also recovered earlier. The crisis in Sweden for example only lasted a little more than two years (in Germany and Poland it lasted for more than 4 years, see graph 1) and peak decline in industrial production was at 10.3% while for example Germany or Poland had declines in industrial production of more than 40% (see graph 2). Even when looking at comparable GDP figures, Sweden was with a decline of 6.5% well below countries such as Germany (25%) or Austria (23.4%, see graph 3). Moreover and of greater interest for this paper is the fact that Sweden did not only perform better during the Great Depression but also pursued a different economic policy. Most prominently cited amongst economic historians are two distinctly Swedish policy measures: First, looking at Swedens monetary policy, scholars point out, that the country left the gold standard very early and unique at that time simultaneously put the preservation of the domestic purchasing power of the krona on top of the political agenda. Second, it is often mentioned, that the Social-Democratic government, which came into power in 1932, invested heavily in public work programmes following a Keynesian-type fiscal policy. The present paper seeks to analyse whether these two factors are a) sufficient and b) withstand a closer empirical evaluation when it comes to explain the better development of Sweden during the Great Depression. In order to do so, the paper will, as a first step, outline the economic situation in Sweden and the corresponding economic policy prior to the crisis. This is necessary, as it provides an overview of the nature of Swedens economy, its degree of integration into the international market and accordingly its general contagion risk at the time of the crisis. Secondly, the above mentioned policy measures during the Great Depression will be outlined. Thirdly and most central in this paper is an analyses of the effectiveness and consequences of these policy measures. The last chapter will then draw the attention to other factors outside the control of government policy that might have helped Sweden to ease the effects of the Great Depression. Literature Immune to crisis? Swedens economic development prior to the Great Depression Even though Swedens macro-economic policy is often seen as the major contributor to the countries positive development during the Great Depression, one must not fail to see, that some of the reasons for this development are rather to be found in specific characteristics of Swedens economy prior to 1929/31 than in any explicit policy measure thereafter. Two pre-existing conditions can be outlined, that seemed to have stabilized the economy during the crisis. Firstly, a constantly undervalued krona made Swedish exports cheap on the international market. Secondly, the banking sector in Sweden was centralized and crisis-prone. Thus, a banking panic never occurred. The following paragraphs explain these specifically Swedish conditions in greater detail. Traditionally, Swedens economy was based on the countrys rich endowments of iron and timber. Its main trading partner was Britain and later on Germany and the United States. During the beginning of the 20th century Sweden also became a major exporter of technologically sophisticated goods such as telephones (e.g. Ericsson) or appliances (e.g. Electrolux). As Sweden was at least on paper a neutral power during World War I (WWI) many investors sought to acquire Swedish assets at that time, as the country seemed to be a safe haven for capital. Additionally, by mainly exporting raw materials, Sweden could take advantage of the increase in foreign demand for those goods caused by WWI. By the end of the war Sweden had transformed from a major international borrower to a creditor to the rest of the world. While the export industry could profit from these developments, inflation increased mainly due to increasing costs for imports. Between 1915 and 1918 the cost of living rose by as much a s 90%. This inflation was eventually condemned between 1920 and 1924 when prices declined by 55% due to a restrictive monetary policy. After 1924 a slower, but persistent deflation continued until 1931. With such low domestic prices, Sweden was highly competitive on the international market. That is why during most of the 1920s Sweden experienced a strong export-led economic growth. This is why after WWI Sweden reinstated the gold standard as one of the first industrialized countries in 1924. Many economic historians believe that this return to the gold standard occurred at a rate that left the krona undervalued well into the 1930s. As a consequence Swedish exports remained highly competitive even in times of economic crisis. The domestic market also stabilized during the 1920s. Due to export bans and high import taxes during and after WWI, Swedish consumers, whose purchasing power constantly increased during the 1920s, substituted imports with domestic products. Additionally, demographics played a role. During the 1920s and 1930s there was a rapid rise in the number of young people of working age (especially those aged 20-29). Respectively, demand for housing, food, clothes and other consumer products increased which contributed to a strong growth of domestic production as well. When the stock market crash of October 29, 1929, triggered the Great Depression, another factor for Swedens low proneness to crises became obvious. Swedens banking structure was very concentrated. This was much in contrast to for example the United States, where the banking structure was highly fragmented and decentralized. According to Ben Bernanke, such a structure is much more likely to cause banking panics. Sweden however was characterized by a branch banking system, where risks were dispersed. It is argued that especially in the case of Sweden, earlier experiences with failing banks in the 1920s had led to reforms that had put the banking system on a sound footing. That is why at the beginning of the 1930s the banking sector in Sweden did not experience widespread panics. Putting all these facts together, it can be argued, that Sweden was from the very beginning less likely to be effected by the Great Depression than those countries whose banking sector collapsed. This especially holds true when considering the fact that trust in the economy never vanished in Sweden due to a generally stable banking structure. Additionally, even though exports declined from 1931 until 1932, Swedens export industry always remained highly competitive. This was not least due to an undervalued krona, whose parity remained stable well into the 1930s. Nevertheless, analyzing the characteristics of Swedens economy prior to the Great Depression only answers part of the question to why Sweden performed considerably better during the crisis than other nations. Especially when Sweden left the gold standard in 1931, specific policy measures as described in chapter two played an equally significant role. What was so special? Swedens response to the Great Depression Prior to the Great Depression, the political mainstream of the Western industrialized world followed a laissez-faire ideology that propagated the free play of the market. It was believed that capitalism had a self-equilibrating tendency, leading to an optimal level of resource utilization. Hence, economic policy at that time simply meant that governments should balance their budget, maintain the gold standard and let businesses reequilibrate themselves. However, while many countries had to reconsider their economic policies during the Great Depression, Sweden had already made this step beforehand. During the late 1920s, Swedens economic policy was already based on the advice of trained economists who did not solely propagate the contemporary neo-classical view on economics but rather pursued their own theories on how the state should react during an economic crisis. This so called Stockholm School was a loose group of economists whose most important figures were Knut Wicksell, Eli He ckscher, Gustav Bagge, Bertil Ohlin and David Davidson. Especially Knut Wicksells findings at the beginning of the 20th century inspired most of the works of his followers. Wicksell is best known for Interest and Prices, his contribution to the fledgling field now called macroeconomics. In this book and in his 1906 Lectures in Political Economy, volume 2, Wicksell sketched out his version of the quantity theory of money (monetarism). The standard view of the quantity theory before Wicksell was that increases in the money supply have a direct effect on prices-more money chasing the same amount of goods. Wicksell focused on the indirect effect. In elaborating this effect, Wicksell distinguished between the real rate of return on new capital (Wicksell called this the natural rate of interest) and the actual market rate of interest. He argued that if the banks reduced the rate of interest below the real rate of return on capital, the amount of loan capital demanded would increase and the amount of saving supplied would fall. Investment, which equaled saving before the interest rate fell, would exceed saving at the lower rate. The increase in investment woul d increase overall spending, thus driving up prices. This cumulative process of inflation would stop only when the banks reserves had fallen to their legal or desired limit, whichever was higher. In laying out this theory, Wicksell began the conversion of the old quantity theory into a full-blown theory of prices. The Stockholm school, of which Wicksell was the father figure, ran with this insight and developed its own version of macroeconomics. In some ways this version resembled later Keynesian economics. Wicksell also argued passionately for making price stability the supreme goal of monetary policy. A stable price level, he maintained, made planning easier for participants in both financial and labour markets. In an 1898 analysis, Wicksells key recommendation for central banks was to increase interest rates whenever prices were rising and to lower them when prices were falling-a monetary policy that he considered to be straightforward. He argued that low interest rates would tend to increase prices. A low rate of interest would lead a borrower to buy some commodity which otherwise he would not have bought at all and would lead someone who wishes temporarily to keep some or all of his goods off the market . . . [to ask ] . . . the Bank for money with which to meet his immediate or pending liabilities without having to sell his goods. Thus, demand would rise and supply would fall, thereby ensuring an increase in prices.18 This meant that the stabilization of prices required only that interest rates be increased when prices were rising and reduced when prices were falling. Wicksell stressed that movements in the price level exerted a particularly large effect on borrowers because an increase in all prices made it easier to repay debts while a reduction made it harder. He also noted that real wages could be affected if nominal wages (in kronor) did not keep up with changes in prices. Even though Wicksell died in 1926 his followers such as Eli Heckscher, Bertil Ohlin, Gustav Cassel and Gunnar Myrdal, could build upon his theoretical work and formulate concrete policy advice in 1931, when the Great Depression finally reached Sweden. The following paragraphs reveal how their influence and advice on the Swedish central bank (Riksbank) and on the political elite helped Sweden through the crisis. Monetary policy During the early months of 1931, Sweden was the recipient of capital inflows. However, the German standstill led many international investors to withdraw their funds from Sweden both because they lacked access to their German funds and because they feared that the crisis would spread. These withdrawals contributed to a drastic reduction in Swedish reserves. By September of 1931, reserves had fallen to less than one-tenth of their January level. Similar pressure was placed on the British financial system, and on September 21, Britain abandoned the gold standard. On September 27 Sweden, too, abandoned the gold standard. The Riksbank and the minister of finance immediately announced that the new monetary goal for the country would be to preserve the domestic purchasing power of the krona using all available means. The next day, September 28, the Riksdag gave its official assent by relieving the Riksbank of its responsibility to convert notes into gold at a fixed rate. People who wished to exchange kronor for foreign exchange could still do so at commercial banks, whose representatives met daily (along with a Riksbank official) to set exchange rates. In making price stability the primary objective of its monetary policy, Sweden pursued an internationally unique agenda. Based on Knut Wicksells argument that stable price levels made planning easier for participants in both financial and labor market, the Riksbank new role was to maintain price levels within a certain range. In order to do so, the first step the Riksbank undertook was to develop a new, weekly index of consumer prices. This was necessary as the goal was to give the public certain definite stand points for estimating future developments in prices. Consequently, the new index was designed to include a wide range of goods and services that reflected purchases made by average families in Sweden. This ensured that the purchasing power of the Krona could be measured for most individuals correctly. The weekly inflation was then computed by weighing the percent change in each good and service consumed by the fraction of total consumer expenditure that households allocated to this item. Instruments used by the Riksbank in order to fulfill the price stability target were changes in the discount rate and operations in the foreign exchange market. Accordingly, the Riksbank changed the discount rate from 8% to 6% in 1931 as there were no longer signs for a continuing inflation. After that, the discoun t rate was lowered to 2.5% in 0.5% steps until 1937. In retro perspective the monetary policy of the Riksbank proved to be very effective. Statistics show a considerably stable level of consumer prices between 1931 and 1938 (see graph 7). Most importantly however is the fact, that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the monetary program of 1931 à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ maintained public trust and confidence in the banking sector. One can therefore conclude, that not only did the centralized branch system of the banking structure prevented Sweden from the experience of a fully scaled banking panic, but also a sound monetary policy based on the theoretical findings of the Stockholm School. Nevertheless, the price stabilizing policy of the Riksbank did not remain unchallenged. For example, Bertil Ohlin, who wrote an article entitled The inadequacy of price stabilization. There he acknowledged that the economic situation would most undoubtedly have been still worse if prices had been allowed to fall as they did in countries that kept to the old gold parity, and that the knowledge that the Riksbank would endeavor by every means in its power to prevent any appreciable fall in prices has exercised a reassuring influence on trade. However, Ohlin went on to argue that stabilization of prices could not prevent reductions in investment and hence in GDP. The next chapter explains how this argument was also put forward by the Social Democrats in 1932. Public deficit spending In the 1932 elections, the Social Democrats obtained the highest number of votes and formed a government. The new minister of finance, Ernst Wigforss, held that a monetary policy focused on price stability was insufficient to obtain an acceptable outcome for Sweden. The new finance minister had long championed the idea of intentional deficit spending in recessions. Wigforss had been a professor of linguistics at Lund before he became one of the leading intellectuals of the Social Democratic Party, and he worked closely with a number of Swedish economists, including Gunnar Myrdal, Erik Lindahl, and Bertil Ohlin. The group developed theories justifying the use of fiscal policy as a stabilization tool that were quite similar to those developed by John Maynard Keynes. In a 1928 article, for example, Wigforss wrote: If I want work for 100 people I do not need to put all 100 to work. . . . [I]f I can get an unemployed tailor work, he will get the opportunity to buy himself new shoes and in this way an unemployed shoemaker will get work. . . . This crisis is characterized above all by a relationship which is called a vicious circle. . . . One can say the crisis drives itself once it begins, and it [will] be the same once recovery begins. Wigforsss advocacy of deficit spending in response to the Depression was a radical departure from the policies of previous governments. Prior to 1933, government borrowing was primarily limited to loans for productive purposes, that is, for investments that would generate future government revenue, such as the postal service, telephones, electrical power generation, and railroads. Income derived from these activities would then cover the interest payments on the public debt while also generating additional income for the state.36 In contrast, nonproductive government expenditure was supposed to be paid for with current government revenues. Since it was impossible to predict current revenues or nonproductive expenditures accurately, Sw eden had reserve funds that accumulated any unanticipated surpluses. These funds were then available to cover unanticipated deficits. In the fiscal years 1931-1932 and 1932-1933, for example, the budget was balanced by reducing the reserves of the Alcoholic Drink Account. Thus, while budget deficits in the modern sense occurred, they were not acknowledged, and they were not the result of any policy aimed specifically at creating or allowing a deficit. One of the more controversial issues amongst economic historians is the questions whether public deficit spending and public work programs really helped Sweden out of the economic slump or whether they were merely a side note during the Great Depression. The reason for that is that the coming to power of the Social Democrats in 1932 are widely perceived as a turning point in Swedens economic policy and sometimes even as the global birth of modern macro-economic policy. However, empirical evidence proving that a special Social Democratic economic policy caused Swedens quick recovery is scarce. As a matter of fact, the debate about the future fiscal policy of Sweden under Social Democratic rule already circled around issues much similar to those that John Maynard Keynes dealt with four years later in his magnum opus the General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. Swedens financial minister Ernst Wigforss argued that price stabilization would not be enough to fight the depression. He rather proposed a public work program designed to put unemployed back to work even if this meant budget deficits. Much like the policy advocating stable prices, this one was again based on advice put forward by contemporary economists. This was a radical departure from the policies of previous governments. A balanced budget had always been the highest maxim. Usually, government loans were only used for investments that were expected to generate future profits such as postal services, railroads or electric power supply. All other nonproductive expenditures were paid for by reserves the government had built up. Unsurprisingly, this radical change in policy went not without fierce debate and controversy in parliament. The first unbalanced budget proposed by Wigforss for the years 1933 and 1934 was criticized for causing inflation and depriving businesses of capital necessary for their development. To counter these arguments, the Social Democrats moved away from financing public wor k programs through deficits and proposed an inheritance tax used to finance their plans. Additionally, the Agrarian Party did not agree to the budget as they feared a negligence of the population working in the agrarian sector. As a consequence, the Social Democrats had to include high subsidy payments for the agricultural sector in the budget. When it finally passed the parliament in 1933 much of the planned deficit spending policy had disappeared. Moreover, most of the funds still allocated to public work programs could not be put to use as a nationwide lockout of employees in the construction sector blockaded the building industry. This lockout took place because the employer association SAF wanted to enforce lower wages for the industry. This conflict was solved in 1934 and only then could the government finally make use of the allocated funds for public works. Did they find the Holy Grail? The effects of Swedens economic policy Renowned economist and chairman of the Fed, Ben Bernanke, wrote in his essay collection on the Great Depression that Understanding the Great Depression is the holy grail of macro-economics. He thereby referred to the very difficult but ultimately rewarding task of finding a definite answer to the question of the real causes of the Great Depression. This, he argues, could help to identify future crisis better and address them more effectively. When looking at the fact that Sweden had overcome the Depression rather well by applying certain types of policies, the question arises whether the Holy Grail might have already been found long before Bernanke published his book. This chapter will therefore look more closely at the real effect that the Swedish economic policy had from 1929 to 1937. The range and depth of the several above mentioned policy measures varied significantly. It is therefore convenient to divide the chapter into the several policy fields that were addressed between 1929 and 1937. The evaluation is mainly done by using statistics of key figures that are in direct relation to the executed policy. By drawing on secondary literature it is then elaborated whether the figures in the statistics did or did not change due to a specific policy or due to other factors. When looking at the debate on the cause of Swedens recovery the author argues that according to one view the increasing demand and thus increasing exports led to a recovery. Hence, monetary policy was the most powerful contributory factor. The public works policy could not have had any significant effect, since the works were not started on any substantial scale until recovery was well under way. On the other hand, the expansion of the export market at first did not have an extensive impact on the labor market as at first large pile of build up stock were used for exports. No increase in production or employment took place. The author concludes that it was a mixture of growing demand abroad, monetary policy, deficit spending and support of the agriculture that led to Swedens recovery. Even if it is clear that the public works did not lead to recovery it is unclear whether exports alone did the trick. Just lucky? External factors fostering Swedens recovery Leaving the gold standard After Great Britain left the gold standard on September 21st 1931, Sweden followed six days later as one of the first countries. The effects on both the domestic markets and the foreign sector were at first positive. Leaving gold meant that the Swedish Riksbank could lower the interest rate, therefore practicing an inflationary monetary policy rather than a deflationary policy as before. This let the money supply increase and accordingly aggregated product demand. As Sweden experienced a deflation prior to 1931 the increase in money now turned the economic situation into a mild inflation. This proved to be a rather favorable constellation, as with lower interest rates at the central bank and accordingly low real interest rates for businesses, investments increased. Hence, optimism amongst entrepreneurs never fell to a point where all investments were put on hold. Rather, trust in the economy always remained at a substantially high level, while prices remained at level that did not se em to hurt the economy too much. Another important factor was the effect of an inflationary monetary policy on the export sector. Leaving gold was followed by a depreciation of the Krona. This meant that Swedish products became cheaper and did not decrease significantly, which is remarkable when looking at global trade statistics during the Great Depression. Graph 6 shows that Swedish exports did quite well during the 1930s, while a lot of other western economies had to face significant declines in exports. Additionally, a depreciation of the Krona also meant that imports became more expensive for Swedish consumers. As a consequence import substitution occurred, strengthening domestic enterprises. All put together, it becomes evident (see Berry Eichengreen), that leaving the gold standard early played an important role for the depth of and the recovery from the Great Depression. Conclusion This paper examined the economic policy of Sweden during the Great Depression. The primary question was to find out which factors contributed to the relatively mild course of the crisis. Accordingly, the first chapter outlined the basic condition the Swedish economy was in prior to the crisis. This was a necessary entrance into the subject as it revealed that Swedens exposure to contagion was at least with respect to the banking sector limited. On the other hand, the chapter revealed as well that the decrease of foreign demand due to the crisis had a definite negative impact on Swedens export industry. Nevertheless, it can be argued that under these circumstances, Sweden was from the very beginning less likely to be effected by the Great Depression than those countries whose banking sector collapsed. This especially holds true when considering the fact that trust in the economy never vanished in Sweden due to generally stable, basic economic parameters. Hence, the specific characte ristics of Swedens economy prior and during the Great Depression already answer part of the question to why Sweden performed so well. As Sweden was nevertheless hit by the crisis through the export market and the collapse of the international trading system, the second part of the answer can be found within the internationally unique policy measures Sweden pursued between 1931 and 1937. In chapter two it is argued that Swedish politicians deliberately followed an economic policy outside the neoclassical mainstream. This is mainly due to the so called Stockholm school, whose followers very early acknowledged that the state had to play a vital role during an economic crisis. As this group of economist and their advice was very well accepted within the political elite, policy measures could be put into practice without having to make too many concessions to third parties. Thus, policy reaction to the crisis was quick and effective. In chapter three, several major policy measures that helped Sweden to recover from the Great Depression quicker than others are analysed in detail: the early abandoning of the gold standard, the stabilization of the purchasing power of the krona and public work programmes. While the suspension of the gold standard was merely a reaction to the fact that one of Swedens major trading partners, the UK, abandoned gold, the other two measures can clearly be traced back to the Stockholm School. It is argued in the paper, that stabilizing the purchasing power of the krona definitely helped to maintain trust in the economic system and provided planning reliability for businesses. The role of the public work programmes however remains somewhat blurry. Even though Sweden seems to be an early if not the first country to follow Keynesian-like policies, the effects of the deficit spending policy is somewhat disputed by scholars. There is however consensus on the fact that the policies of the Social Democrats in the early 1930s paved the way for true deficit spending and broad government intervention in the following decades, leading to the today renown Swedish welfare state. Lastly, Swedens quick recovery is looked upon in chapter four. As available statistics do not reveal a significant success of the government work program, outside factors might explain more accurately why Sweden recovered so quickly. Looking at exports statistics one can clearly see that a general upswing in the global business cycle was very well received by Swedens export industry. Especially the booming housing market in Great Britain pampered the export sector. Putting all pieces together, this paper showed that a mixture of internal and external factors helped Sweden to overcome the Great Depression better than others. While a relatively low exposure of the banking sector to the international market helped to maintain trust in the economy, the stabilizing monetary policy of the Riksbank strengthened the planning reliability for customers and businesses alike. The quick recovery at the end of the Depression however can mainly be traced back to external factors. Nevertheless, the fact that businesses could quickly react to the growth in foreign demand at all is in great parts due to the stabilizing policy of the government.

media and its influence on the public Essay -- essays research papers

The media is a huge form of communication and source of information in the United States; on one side of the dispute are the beliefs that the media is too opinionated. On the other side are the beliefs that the media is just a simple informer that just reports the facts. The main issue for both of these beliefs is: does the media affect opinions on the issues from opinionated reports, or does it just report the facts that public may already know? If one could answer this question then they would know if the media was responsible or not for writing history.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The media is a form of communication used to reach the general public to form audiences for information, artistic expression, and other kinds of messages (Marc, David, â€Å"Mass Media.† Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Scholastic Library Publishing, 2005 ). Media is known for being able to reach large segments of the public due to its great value in commerce, politics, and culture. Corporations like in the U.S. or national governments like in China, usually control the media. These corporations or national governments employ people who are professional and can produce, promote, and deliver these media products to meet the goal of attracting large audiences.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Media products can be produced and promoted in different ways using different objects. There are products such as books, videos, DVD’s, newspapers, and magazines. The ways media can be delivered to audiences are through t.v. channels, pay-per-view, movies, and radio broadcasting. Most media depends on profit to be produced and a lot of the profit comes from the selling of items like books, and the selling of advertisements like in newspapers or television.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some Historians say that forms of media first occurred during the medieval period in Europe rather than it forming in the industrial- era. It supposedly began in the architecture found in European Cathedrals which functioned like a mass medium of religious communication through biblical stories, religious information, paintings, sculptures, and other forms of art to a large illiterate population. The eighteenth century is often considered to be the beginning of media due to the first commercial printing industry in London. It was then, the eighteenth century, when publishing began and hand operated printing presses ... ...s its consistent failure to inform the masses of its ongoing control. It has been in place for so long that few are aware of how it came about or that it is even still there. But many people are intelligent, moral, and idealistic; if the media would the true history of these three sacred cows, that control would quickly disappear†(J.W. Smith, The Worlds Wasted Wealth 2, (Institute for Economic Democracy, 1994), p.11). The media obtains support and conformity through many ways. After all the media is just another business trying to make a profit so should its buyers be guilty of its continuos to commit such accused wrongness.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The media and its reporting of facts being biased or not is a large topic and is continually debated among those who believe the media should not contain its opinions and others who believe that it is the media’s duty to not only report the facts but to explain and interpret them. People should consider the fact that they choose what they want to read, listen to, and believe so does that make the informer wrong even if the information is not totally accurate or correct?